Konappu Bandara Ashes: What use for a people who have no respect for past heroes? by D. G. B. de Silva

Past heroes? No. They are not the people who matter but the tin god politicians of today. Isn’t that the present day scenario in the country when one looks at the annual garlanding or wreath laying ceremonies which take place under television cameras. That was not this country’s ethos even around the time we lost our independence. It is on record that Pilimatalave running away from pursuing British troops after the Kandyan rebellion was crushed, got off from his litter when passing what was believed to be Elara’s tomb until the bearers told him he was well past the place. That was at the beginning of the 19th century. Almost two millennia earlier, King Dutugemunu after defeating his rival, the Tamil king Elara in single combat decreed not only that the fallen hero should be given a funeral befitting a king and summoned people within several leagues to assemble at the funeral site and held a grand funeral; but also decreed that kings and princes to come in the future should honour the monument erected at the place where the catafalque was placed by stopping the beat of drums in their honour and by getting off from their chariots. It was the decree by that chivalrous king that Pilimatalava observed nearly two millennia later. Such was the Sri Lankan tradition of honouring the heroes and foes.

Have we lived up to that tradition? Not if one realizes the way the place of cremation King Rajasimha II in the old city of Hanguranketa has been desecrated by a government authority responsible for town development "during the last decade of the 20th century. That is what Assistant Commissioner of Archaeology, Senarath Bandara Dissanaike, describes in his book ‘Diyatilaka Nuvara’ (Archaeological Dept Publication) Not only have the four stone pillars which supported a stone slab on which a recumbent lion’s figure was placed been removed but the stone lion itself has been turned into smithereens! What respect for national heroes who fought valiantly to rid the country of more powerful Western invaders?

Against this background, the proposal to return what has been called ‘Konappu Bandara’s ashes" referred to by Gaston Perera in his recent article in The Island quoting a Daily News report, to say the least, is just meaningless. It is far better to let the remains lie where they are as a symbol of a historical phase or historical event rather than brought here and then forgotten or desecrated.

Gaston Perera has raised some interesting points about this proposal to return the "ashes of Konappu Bandara" which he has extracted from the report in the Daly News which attributes the authorship to the Ministry of Culture and Antiquities and in the final analysis, to the Portuguese Ambassador for Sri Lanka resident in India. He quite rightly expressed amazement at this news report as anyone who knows a little a bit about history would do. With his research an the subject for his book fresh in his memory, he pointed out that Konappu Bandara known to us in history was crowned king of this land after his successful expedition to Kandy accompanying Dona Catherina (Kusumasana Devi). The latter was of royal blood as the daughter of Karalliyadde Bandara and had a claim to the Kandyan throne. Konappu Bandara who had, like Dona Catherina, keen brought up under the tutelage of Catholic missionaries did a volte face on successfully reaching Kandy by seizing the throne and crowning himself king after marrying Dona Catherina to fortify his legitimacy. That was an unexpected reversal of fortunes for the Portuguese who could have never thought of forgiving him.

The question is, as Gaston Perera asks, how did the Portuguese be in possession of the ashes of Konappu Bandara? As a ruler who received the admiration and affection of his countrymen, he would have received a fitting cremation in the hands of the chiefs and the populace. How did the ashes pass on then to Portuguese hands? This is a mystery. Was a serious error committed in interpreting what the Ambassador has said? Did he speak of ‘ashes’ or ‘mortal remains’? If it was the latter one can think of an error having being made in the process of communication or in the reporting by the Daily News. In that case, the reference could have been to the remains of some other personage with royal connection who could have passed away in Portugal or in Portuguese hands. We have such a record of two personages. One was Nikapitiye Bandara (Nicapety P(B)andar / Nicapita Adacin of Queyroz and Rieiro respectively) or D. Joao as he was called under his baptized name in the tradition of Portuguese monarchs. He was a grand son of Sitawaka Rajasimha. The other was D. Filpe, who was the son of Yamasinghe Bandara of Kandy. Both are from royal blood. The two princes were sent to Coimbra to pursue higher studies.

D. Filipe followed higher studies at Coliegio S. Pedro of the Coimbra University. Dr. M. H. Goonetileke who has done research on these two princes observes that he was the first Sinhalese to follow course in higher education at a European University. He has translated Soledade’s reference to the princes death as follows; "D. Filipe, the prince of the kingdom of Sitwaka in the island of Ceylon, on whom our Fathers administered holy baptism lies buried in the new Franciscan convent constructed in 1609."

The problem about locating his remains is because the place where he was probably buried in Coimbra University had been completely washed away by floods. Have the Portuguese authorities made further progress in locating his remains?

Dr. Goonetileke refers to the other prince, D. Joao, son of Yamasinghe Bandara of Kandy (Trindade) and cousin of D. Filipe who accompanied the latter to Coimbra but preferred an easy life in luxury in Lisbon and adored by many a lady. (Viterbo quoted by Goonetileke). He died in 1642. Goonetileke quotes the following inscription on his tombstone.

"Qui Sacram Hanc Maraie Aedem Fundauiti Hic Candaie Principis Ossa Sepeliuntur"

Obviously, the remains of prince D. Joao lies at this place. (I tried to locate this place but missed it.)

Against this background of information available about two Sri Lankan princes who died in Coimbra and Lisbon respectively, one may ask if one has mixed up the Nikapitiye Bandara, (D. Filipe) or Prince Dloao with Konappu Bandara, who ascended the throne as Vimaladharmasuriya I? To accept that line of argument one has to concede that an error has occurred in communication between the Ambassador and the Minister or an error has been made by the Ministry spokesman in interpreting the dialogue. On the other hand, it is also possible that due to an error in translation by the newspaper there has been a mix up in terminology. That is ’mortal remains’ being translated as ‘ashes.’ There could not be ashes as the two princes were buried in Portugal according to Christian custom.

On the other hand, the return of ‘ashes’ could arise only in respect of a person who was cremated. In that case, as Gaston Perera asked, did the Portuguese somehow take away the ashes of their arch enemy Konappu Bandara for ‘special treatment’?

As a further alternative, could there have been a second Konappu Bandara who was in the hands of the Portuguese? Even then the confusion about ‘ashes’ arises. Such a suggestion is not altogether out of place considering that there were imposters from time to time during the Portuguese era and later. For example, a ‘second‘ Nikapitie Bandara appeared in the Anuradhapura jungles with matted hair and sporting a long beard and successfully collected a great following after claiming that he returned from Portugal. He really gave a tough time to the Portuguese by defeating them in several battles in Sath Korale and Satara Korale until he was defeated by another Sinhalese leader who fought on the Portuguese side succeeded in winning over the former’s followers by proclaiming himself to be a royal prince.

Whoever this Bandara whose ’ashes’ or ’mortal remains’ are offered to us one must be satisfied wiffl proof about the real Bandara to whom they relate.

The historical significance of Sabaragamuwa by P. D. A. S. Gunasekera

Sabaragamuwa abounds in some of the most famous places, known from the pre-historic periods closely bound up with the earliest civilization of Sri Lanka comparatively older than that of her neighbours, including the sub-continent of India with the mainland and archipelago around according to the latest archaeological evidence unearthed.


Ratnapura town in Sabragamuwa Province

The exploration and findings of the sources of the earliest, "Man and Woman" confirmed by scientific-tests, have left no doubt that the oldest living man from the whole of South East Asia hailed from Sabarawamuwa in Sri Lanka.

In the search for the earliest historical origin of Sri Lankan Civilization, among others, prominent places of worship, Sri Pada Sankapala, Kuragala and Kirinda, invariably figure without exception.

Both Sri Pada in Ratnapura and Kuragala in Balangoda seem to have, in common, traditional belief that Lord Baddha visited both places and left, the imprint of the 'Sacred-foot' are on the top of 'Samanala-Kanda and the other on the Kuragala hills.

All nationalities and followers of the main religions, treat, both as the foot-prints of their 'mentor' Buddhists as the foot-print of Lord-Buddha, Muslims as the foot-print of the Prophet Mohammed, Hindus as the foot-print of Siva (Sivanadi-Padam) and the Catholics as that of the Adam.

The presence of the sacred-foot on the top of both mountains (Mount Samanala and Kuragala) therefore pointed to a close connection with the Buddhist civilization and deserved to be pursued further for possible historical relations to establish the claims of the Buddhist or the followers of other faiths.

The presence of a Buddhist monastery dating back the second century B.C. a foot print' according to traditional belief to be that of Lord Buddha, covered over by 'a stone-slab' as in Sri Pada on Mt. Samanala, the peaceful and quiet atmosphere conductive to the 'Arahat' with the series of rock-caves to match and the spacious, cave, identified as the 'Diva-guhava' (the divine hall) in which Lord Buddha with his retinue of Arahats partook of the mid-day 'Dhana,' all point, in no uncertain terms, to the possibility of finding more positive clues to the real identify of 'Kuragala' by intensive excavations.

The archaeological evidence establishing a civilization, as old as 30,000 years in Sabaragamuwa, as established by the findings of the former archaeological Commissioners, in Sri Lanka, might still be found buried in and under the caves and the rocks, if systematic excavations were undertaken in the interest of 'civilization', even at this later stage.

Besides, Balangoda, being the original abode of the 'Balangoda-man', the earliest known inhabitant of Sabaragamuwa or for that matter, of the whole of South East Asia, it was, indeed time, more teeth were added to the search of his (Balangoda Man's) evidence in the Salubrious air and the atmosphere of the Kuragala-hills, caves and rocks, as no better place could be found by a living being for settlement, than that, in the ages past, when 'rock-caves' provided shelter for the living.

Lanka-Portugal Cultural Commission mooted by Nadira Gunatilleke

Joaguim Ferreira Margues, the Ambassador to Portugal in India has expressed his willingness to appoint a Sri Lanka-Portugal Joint Cultural Commission to investigate and make recommendations on re-discovering cultural affiliations, Cultural Affairs and National Heritage Ministry spokesman said.

He said the Portuguese Ambassador expressed those views after a discussion held with the Cultural Affairs and National Heritage Minister Vijitha Herath at his Ministry. Ambassador Margues said the new Government in Portugal wants to put its colonial past behind it.

According to Minister Herath this commission will provide an opportunity for Sri Lanka to prove the destruction caused during the Portuguese era with strong evidence. It was proposed to carry out excavations to discover new archaeological evidence. The two parties discussed the possibility of holding an exhibition in Sri Lanka in order to display artifacts and jewellery taken away from Sri Lanka. Margues promised to return the ashes of Konappu Bandara, a hero to Sri Lanka.

The 500th anniversary of the Portuguese invasion of Sri Lanka falls next year. The Cultural Affairs and National Heritage Ministry has made arrangements to educate school children and the public on the damage caused by them to the properties and lives of Sri Lanka in order to create patriotic feelings among Sri Lankan citizens.

Minister Herath said that the ministry will intervene at National and International level to force the Portuguese to return the properties seized from Sri Lanka, and apologise for the crimes they committed and to compensate for the properties and human lives destroyed.

The Ministry has already made arrangements to educate society on devastations caused by all European nations who invaded Sri Lanka through essay competitions, debate competitions, dramas, films, posters and other methods organised by the different departments and other institutions under the purview of Cultural Affairs and National Heritage Ministry.

A special committee has already been appointed to organise this program with the participation of Ministry officials and outside professors and doctors. The committee is chaired by Dr. Susantha Gunatilleke.

Beruwela — a multi-faceted historic city by AL-Haj A. H. M. Azwer MP

In the fifteenth century, Devinuvara was one of the flourishing cities in the island. Other noteworthy parts were Beruwela, Bentota, Galle, Weligama. Beruwela, noted earlier, was perhaps the most prosperous. It was a busy settlement of Muslim merchants with many beautiful mansions and large, ‘permanent" shops. (R. A. L. H Gunawardana in Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea)

Historians of repute, both local and foreign, have always noted that Beruwela was indeed a prosperous city with its flourishing port. Indeed it was this Port, situated 56 Kilometres south of the capital Colombo, which brought the city its fame and prosperity.

It was no surprise that Beruwela assumed such a significant position, as it is located at the centre of the ancient sea route between the East and the West, alongside other port cities such as Colombo and Galle. According to reliable historical records, the Arabs landed in Beruwela even before the advent of Islam which was in the 6th century A.D. After they embraced Islam, the Islamic tradition and culture too found its way in to ancient Ceylon through Beruwela, paving the way for the Sinhala Kings to establish a strong bond with the Islamic world.

W. J. M. Lokubandara, the present Minister of Justice, Law Reform and National Integration and Leader of the House and a respected scholar of Buddhist history, opines that the teachings of Buddhism too inspired the ancient Kings to seek knowledge and understanding of other cultures. He says that the ‘ehipassika’ (come and see) formula, which is much valued by Buddhists, eschews the condemnation of other religions, and deserves close scrutiny and understanding. He also adds that, presumably, it was this open minded view that influenced King Agrabodhi to send a Sri Lankan delegation to Iraq, by way of the Silk Routes, for the purpose of making a study of the doctrine of the Prophet. Such lines of contact must have influenced the Arab traveller Ibn Batuta to come to Sri Lanka to seek out the sacred Samantakuta Mountain, ‘just forty leagues from Paradise.’ Identified with the ‘footprints that kindled the faith of those who came from the Middle East, while the famous gem fields in the area offered an enticing commodity to merchants from that region, thus satisfying the demands of both religion and commerce (in Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea).

R. A. L. H. Gunawardana elucidating on the presence of Arabs, Berbers and the ritual of whirling dances at Beruwela, suggests of a close connection between Ceylon and the Mamluk Kingdom of Egypt, which existed from 1250 to 1517 A.D. The initiatives of King Buvanekabahu appear to have brought forth some permanent results in the establishment of a settlement of merchants from the Mamluk Kingdom at Beruwela and the introduction of the influence of the Mawlawiya Sect. It is noteworthy, he says, that the Dambadeni Asna, in which the earliest reference to the land of the Berbers occurs, was written in the reign of the third or the fourth king who bore the name Parakramabahu, that is, between 1287 and 1293 or between 1302 and 1326 which would be soon after or close to the reign of Buvanekabahu.

Beruwela, according to some historians derived its name from two Sinhala words, viz. Be (lower) and Ruwala (sail), which denotes the place where the sails of the Arab merchant vessels were lowered. However another version traces the name to the famed North African (Berber) traveller Abu Yusuf al-Barbari, who is believed to have introduced Islam to the Maldivians.

In fact, Arabs called this place as Berberyn. Berr.. Berr.. which means to stop or pause. When the early Arab settlers arrived by sea and on sighting a tiny islet, they, overcame with joy, cried out "Berr.. Berr.." to their oarsmen of the Catamarans to stop. This island call Berberyn still adds picturesque atmosphere to the environs of the area in the sea waters almost facing Alfasiyathun Nasriya Muslim Girls Vidyalaya, the first Muslim school set up in the island, thereby Beruwela assuming prominence in yet another domain, i.e. pioneering Muslim female education at the very spot where their forefathers landed.

The renowned Muslim traveller mentioned earlier, Ibn Batuta, who has written much about Sri Lanka in his travelling episodes, is also a Berber. The Arabs, who possessed a tremendous knowledge of the sea routes, were inevitably employed by the Sinhalese Kings to handle the country’s commerce and trade. They were also sent as ambassadors to the Islamic empires, which were in fact regarded as the ‘super powers’ of that era.

Royal physicians

A significant contribution of the Arabs in Sri Lanka, the Unani medicine system, found its way to this country through Beruwela. Tradition has it that in the 10th Century, Prince Jamal-ud-din, the son of the Sultan of Konya (in Asia Minor) arrived here and practised Unani medicine. According to Dr. C. G. Uragoda, Unani physicians at first transmitted their medical knowledge orally to members of their own families. Later, information was written down in Tamil language in Arabic script, and kept within the family. Many of the medical plants found in the Kandyan areas and used in Ayurveda began to be employed in the Unani system too. Unani drugs were brought to the country by trading vessels coming from Arabia and the Persian Gulf. These drugs consisted of mainly syrups, which contained ingredients such as rose petals, grapes, dates and musk. Many local constituents were also made use of.

Many Unani physicians have had the honour to serve the Kings in the palace as well. For instance, Muhandiram Mohamed Odeyar who belonged to the famous Behethge clan, served as a physician to the Kandyan Kings.

Even the princes of Maldives sailed to Ceylon in order to get treatment from the Unani physicians. It was also a common sight those days in Beruwela and other parts of the country where the Maldivians used to sell their products, the delicious Bondi Haluva and Diya Hakuru. Following the rapid development that took place in Maldive Islands under the leadership of President Gayoom, they became prosperous and the sight of Maldivians selling these items gradually disappeared from our country.

Although the Unani medical practice has declined significantly in Sri Lanka, quite a number of them could still be found practising in various parts of the country, including in Beruwela. The grandfather of former Speaker, Deshamanya Alhaj M. A. Bakeer Markar was an established Unani physician of the area. Muslims use the term ‘Hakeem’ when referring to a physician, which means literally a person of wisdom in Arabic. In Beruwela, the ‘Hakeem Villa,’ still stands as a monument to this family of physicians. Former Speaker Bakeer Markar, distinguished educationist S. L. M. Shafie Marikar, senior lawyer of the area A. W. M. Razik Marikar and the present Minister of Mass Communications Imthiaz Bakeer Markar hail from this illustrious lineage. Their ancestors came from Hazramouth in Arabia (present day Yemen) in the 7th Century A.D. It is said that four vessels sailed from Yemen with three Sultans, namely, Bad-urdin, Salah-ud-din and Mohamed. They landed at Mannar and settled there. Sad-ur-din the son of Mohamed, sailed further south along the West coast and settled in Beruwela (Ethnological Survey of the Muslims of Sri Lanka - Sir Razik Fareed Foundation).

Beruwela’s contribution to the cultural diversity and racial amity is un-paralleled in the history of Sri Lanka, from the period of the original Arab settlements to the present day where the Sinhalese, Tamils, Muslims and others lived in harmony. The Arab traders were inspired by the Islamic teaching of fairness in business dealings, as taught by the Holy Prophet Muhammed (Sal), Who was a trader himself when He received the Revelation from God Almighty. The Holy Quran too commands the faithful to "Give full measure when you measure, and weigh with a balance that is straight: That is better and fairer in the final determination" (17:35). It was due to nurturing such traditions that the locals developed an immense trust in them.

In an era when there was no banking system, the Sinhalese used to deposit their jewellery and other items with village Muslims, when they leave their houses and go on Negam. Upon arrival they will receive their valuables correctly and safely. Even the jewellers were always purchased from the Moors by the wealthy Sinhalese.

Beruwela was also a citadel of Islamic art, which is evident by the beautiful ancient mosques that are built in the area. The sight of the Kechchimalai Mosque along the coast has always been a treat to the weary traveller. The Muslim travellers never fail to stop at this place to refresh themselves physically as well as spiritually.

Philanthropists

The precious stones from the ‘Gem City’ Ratnapura, found its way to Beruwela where they traded hands. It was a valuable source of foreign exchange for Sri Lanka for a long period of time. The great philanthropist of Beruwela, Alhaj M. I. M. Naleem, who rose to prominence through the gem trade, contributed much for the development of Islamic culture and tradition, the founding of the Islamic Institute, Jamiya Naleemiya being one of them, following the footsteps of his distinguished immediate predecessors such as Alhaj N. D. H. Abdul Cafoor and ‘Rubber King’ E. L. Ibrahim Hajiar, who have donated much of their wealth for the development of education and for the welfare of the disabled and orphans. It should be gratefully remembered that Alhaj N. D. H. Abdul Cafoor provided land and buildings for Zahira College, Home for the Blind in Ratmalana and Boys Home & Gafooriya Arabic College in Maharagama, among others. E. L. Ibrahim Hajiar used to distribute foodstuff and dates among thousands of people sans any communal and ethnic differences during the month of Ramazan, beginning from Veyangalle in the Kalutara District up to the bridge of Moratuwa.

When the Portuguese first arrived in Ceylon in the early 6th century, Muslims have already developed to an indigenous lot developing their own and unique identity, with a mixture of Arab, Sinhalese and Tamil blood. Tamil has gradually replaced Arabic as their language of communication, largely due to their interaction with the South Indian Muslim traders. The usage of Arabic-Tamil (Arabu-Thamil) in which poems were composed eulogising the lives of the Holy Prophet, His Companions and the famous Saints of Islam was prevalent among them. Even today, many Muslim families are seen sitting together in a circle, singing these poems in a rhythmic tone. This practice has served as an important tool to inculcate Islamic values among Muslim children for centuries.

The Muslims were also equally adept in Sinhala, a trend that continues unabated to this day, although English too is used among a bulk of the present generation. For the Portuguese however, the Muslims have always been ‘Moors,’ who ruled Spain for eight hundred years between the 7th and 15th Century A.D. It is this reference that came here to stay and used by the Sri Lankan Muslims.

Beruwela has also produced a Muslim ruler by the name of Vathimi Raja who reigned in Kurunegala for a brief period during the 14th Century. He was the son of Buvanekabahu I, by a Muslim spouse from Beruwela. He is still remembered by the people of Kurunegala as Vathimi Deiyo or Gale Bandara Deiyo. There is also a Vattimirajapura housing scheme, which was fittingly opened by the late Alhaj M. A. Bakeer Markar and appropriately named in remembrance of the King Vathimi. As destined, when he was the Speaker, Alhaj M. A. Bakeer Markar too was the acting Head of State for a brief period in 1981, when President J. R. Jayewardene and Prime Minister R. Premadasa left for England to attend the wedding ceremony of Prince Charles and Princess Diana.

The Bard of Beruwela

The tradition of racial integration and linguistic ability nurtured by the early Muslims still flourishes this area. The name of Bakeer Markar - the Bard of Beruwela - was synonymous with Beruwela in the post-Independence era. He studied in Tamil under the able guidance of Pulavar Pandithar Muna Nallathambi at Zahira College, Colombo. He also, mastered the Sinhala and English languages. With the guidance of his mentor and political guru Dr. T. B. Jayah, he grew up to become an amiable leader, who was loved by people of all communities. He finally became the Governor (Ruler) of the Southern province, incidents that could be regarded as a historic sequence to the ascension of a previous ruler from Beruwela to the Throne.

Bakeer Markar’s eldest son, the present Minister of Mass Communication too has endeared himself not only to the people of Beruwela but also to the entire nation. Educated at Ananda College, Colombo, he was the President of the Sinhala Debating Society of this leading Buddhist institute. Today, Imthiaz is popular as one of the best Sinhala orators of this country. Minister W. J. M. Lokubandara paid a rich tribute when he described Imthiaz as a ‘Jathika Sampatha‘ (a national treasure) during the Mass Communication Ministry’s Budget Debate in Parliament in 2002.

A cultural heritage

It is most commendable that this ‘heir to the throne,’ Imthiaz Bakeer Markar issued a postage stamp on 8th June 2003 to commemorate the first Muslim mosque of Ceylon, the Masjidul Abraar, which is situated in the Maradana area of Beruwela. This Masjid was built in the year 920 AD by the Arab traders in conjunction with ‘Meelad-un-Nabi,’ the birthday of Holy Prophet Mohammed. Under the guidance and leadership of the elder Bakeer Markar, the mosque was rebuilt restoring its pristine glory - magnificently designed by that eminent architect W. J. Neil Alles of Surti & Alles Chartered Architects. The names of Alhaj S. M. A. Hameed and M. N. A. Haniffa (popularly known as ‘Haniffa Baas’) are also forever remembered for their valuable contribution in renovating the mosque. A significant feature of the event was the declaration of this mosque as a place of historic significance and a cultural heritage by the Minister of Human Resources, Education and Cultural Affairs, Dr. Karunasena Kodithuwakku.

It is very significantly that, this is first time in the history of our country that a place of Islamic culture and heritage has been declared as a national monument of the Nation.

Yapahuwa -The Chinese connection by ANJANA GAMAGE (WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka)

The Yapahuwa rock and its surrounding area became the capital of the island for a short time in the 13th z_p33-yapahuwa1.jpg (24021 bytes)century. It is known that King Buvanaikabahu 1 (1273-1284) made this rock, rising loftily out of the outskirts of Kurunegala his capital. There is no mention of anything about Yapahuwa beyond 13th century in Sri Lankan historical sources.

But the latest archaeological excavations performed in Yapahuwa tells us that the kingdom had very close diplomatic relationship with China during the 13th century.

Surveys were carried out from time to time by the Archaeological Department since 1900. But more methodical and scientific survey for Yapahuwa area was a pressing need, said the Director General of Archaeology Dr. Shiran Deraniyagala.

Therefore an archaeological team headed by Dr. Senarath Dissanayake started their voyage of Yapahuwa excavation for the first time last year December.

The first archaeological excavation at Yapahuwa has done by the H.C.P. Bell, who was the first archaeological commissioner (1810-1811). Special monuments had been discovered at that time. According to the reports magnificent types of palace entrances (visithuru sopanas) were found by H.C.P. Bell during his excavations.

z_p33-yapahuwa2.jpg (14210 bytes)"We found a number of new pebbles at last year's excavations. There were 24 new stones. Also some strong evidences were gathered from the six acres of flat land on the Yapahuwa rock. It has pre-historic (from 1,000 B.C. to 500 B.C.) or early historic (from 500 B.C. to 200 AD.) human settlements and it is the earliest such settlement be found on a rock. Furthermore, the evidence reveals that it was not a rural settlement but somewhat urban type of settlement," Dissanayake said.

"During the excavation period, we were able to gather strong archaeological evidence to show that this city have had close connections with China. But it is not known when such Sino - Yapahuwa relationship was originated. There are some evidences which would help to establish that Yapahuwa had dealings with the far east during the period about of 2-3 centuries of Christian era.

Whether Yapahuwa had much earlier relationship with China will be disclosed by further archaeological surveys", he pointed out. "However, there are number of facts to show that there was relationship between Yapahuwa and China during the short period it became the capital of the island (in the latter part of 13th century). By the early excavations at Yapahuwa several Chinese ceramics were found which were among the finest ceramics found in the island. A large number of celadan pottery parts were also found.

The largest number of Chinese coins found from Yapahuwa also enhanced the Chinese relationship with Yapahuwa. During H.C.P. Bell's excavation, he had found 12 Chinese coins and in 1949 a total number of 1310 Chinese coins were discovered," he said.

Further surveys would provide better insight into what may have been a very strong trade and diplomatic link between the two countries.

Small Tank Heritage of Rajarata by Dr. C. R. Panabokke (WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka)

I have chosen the title of today’s address for several reasons. Firstly, the small or village tank settlements, I believe, have always been the backbone of the Rajarata civilization from ancient times, and secondly these small tanks find their best expression across the various landscapes of the Rajarata. At the same time, the small tank systems have always occupied a priority place in our national heritage and conscience.

I shall be dealing mainly with the ‘medieval period’ of the small tank heritage from around the 4th or 5th century up to the 12th century. Because of the lack of reliable information that could be gathered covering the ‘ancient’ period prior to the 4th century. I shall not be dealing with that particular period.

Although many well known studies have been carried out in the recent past on the more impressive ancient major or larger irrigation works by several well known scholars such as Parker, Brohier, Nicholas, Paranavitana, and Gunawardena, no studies of similar scope have been reported in respect of the small tank system. From the social science perspective, the well known study at Pul Eliya by Leach stands out as a special land mark.

Wanigaratne (1998) considers that Sri Lanka’s irrigation heritage draws on two main traditions. The ‘Greater Tradition’ or the Mahasammatha follows the construction and management of thousands of small village based tanks systems; and the ‘Lesser Tradition or the ‘Chulasammatha’ that emerges from the construction and management of large storage reservoirs and canal complexes.

Interpretations of ancient texts by several historians, example Pridham, Abeywardena, Siriweera have also provided useful insights in to certain periods. Some of the best accounts of the small tanks systems as they existed during the latter half of the nineteenth century is provided in Ievers’ Manual of the North Central Province published in 1890, and from which I shall be drawing several conclusions in the latter part of my address.

The form and order of small tank systems

A proper scientific study of any kind of natural system begins with a broad characterization and understanding of its form and order. A general glance at the one inch in one mile topographic sheets of the Survey Department shows an apparently scattered and random distribution pattern of small tanks and paddy command areas across the land surface of the North Central Province. However, a closer examination of the natural drainage patterns in relation to the location of the individual tanks reveals a distinct cascade pattern as was identified by Prof. Madduma Bandara in 1983, and it is now referred to as the ‘Small tank cascade system’. Around the same period another son of the soil of the Rajarata, Dr. M. U. A. Tennakoon had been able to came up with the indigenous and traditional understanding of these cascades or the ‘Ellangawas’ which is the folkloristic term for these cascades; and he asserts that this ‘Ellangawa’ or cascade concept had been well entrenched in the minds of the ancient farmers and water resource managers. I am inclined to go along with him in another sense, in that I consider the small tank builders of that period had a profound understanding of their landscapes, landforms and landscape hydrology, or what we in modern science term as ‘geomorphology’ of the different landscapes of this region.

An IFAD funded study for the Anuradhapura Participatory Rural Development Project (PRDP) in 1995 enabled the International Irrigation Management Institute to study the small tank cascade systems in the Anuradhapura district in a wider setting. This was extended to cover the whole of the Rajarata in 1996 under assistance from the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka. As a result of these studies it is now well established that the nine river basins that made by the Rajarata is made up of 50 sub watersheds and 457 Cascades of small tanks. This, in more or less a systematic manner, characterizes the form and order of the small tank system of the Rajarata.

It is within this framework of the location and hydrography of these 457 cascade meso-basins that meaningful analysis and interpretation of the hydrological endowment and carrying capacity of the approximately 3,000 functioning small tanks of the, Rajarata could be made. It is relevant in this connection to refer to a significant statement made as far back as in 1936 by a very distinguished former Director of Irrigation, J. S. Kennedy which states ‘Every village irrigation work has an individuality of its own, and when located on the topo map, the engineer has next to acquire the sense and substance of that individuality’. In other words Kennedy was searching for that elusive form and order in order to better grasp and understand the essential nature of a small tank systems that he was working with.

Distribution patterns

Although the Rajarata is located wholly within the dry zone of the north central region of this country, its natural environment is by no means uniform or homogeneous across this region as commonly perceived. There is a distinct variation in the annual and seasonal rainfall as well as in the natural hydrology as one proceeds from the eastern part of the region to the western part. Similarly, a distinct variation in landforms, soils and underlying geology can be observed as one proceeds from east to west.

One of the most striking features in the tank distribution pattern in the Rajarata is the decreasing density of small tank cascades as one proceeds from the eastern segment of this region to the western segment. Panabokke 1999 has discussed and explained the underlying reasons for this significant variation in tank density from east to west in the Rajarata region. There is clear evidence that a major portion of the Wilpattu National Park, especially that area outside the Moderagam Aru basin had never been a human habitat even in the ancient period as compared with the Yala National Park.

Evolution and design of early cascade systems

There are hardly any studies that have been carried out to date on the past evolution of these small tanks. Historical references, however, indicate that these small tank systems had been in existence in varying degree since the medieval period.

Indirect and circumstantial evidence points to the fact that it was these small scale irrigation reservoirs or tanks that were the precursors to the larger and more impressive irrigation works that were constructed during the reign of various rulers up to the tenth century AD. From all accounts it is clear that the spread of these small tank irrigation systems would have taken place concurrently with the construction of the major irrigation systems.

However, while the construction of the major large scale irrigation works were controlled and directed by the various kings and the higher echelons of the irrigation bureaucracy of that period, the small tank systems were initiated and constructed by the small village communities by a communal effort throughout this period of approximately fifteen centuries.

There are no recorded scripts or historical documents relating to the methods employed in site selection and the location of small tanks along these inland valleys during the ancient or medieval periods. At best, some fragments of the oral-traditional knowledge handed down from past generations is yet available with some of the village elders now living within these cascades.

The technology of construction and maintenance of these small tanks had been fairly simple and straightforward and certainly within the capability of village labour resources as well as their construction skills. Going by the fact that by the fourth or fifth century AD the design and construction of the major irrigation networks had attained a high level of technical sophistication, it can be reasoned that the technology of small tank design and construction could also have attained a high level of maturity by the same period, or even much before this period.

According to this oral tradition, the initial settlements usually took place in the middle segment of the main valley. The settlement started with a smaller tank which was progressively increased in size by successive generations. Evidence of this was recently seen in some recently excavated cross sections of bunds of some old small tanks that were being rehabilitated by the DAS, particularly where a whole cross section was exposed for placing the new concrete tower sluices in position. One could clearly observe different layers of differently coloured soil material of varying thickness that had been placed in position at different periods, which could not however be adequately dated as regards which periods they were placed.

According to tradition, in selecting the most appropriate location within the main valley, a site that had a low, rounded, rock outcrop that could have been used as a natural spillway essentially determined the location of the main tank bund. This had to be at the terminal end of either the left or right bank extremity of the main tank bund. In all of the small tanks which had a water spread size of more than 50 acres, the spillways were located at these natural low relief rock outcrops. When one studies the detailed geomorphology of this landscape, it is not surprising to observe the high incidence of such rock outcrops of varying shapes, form and relief that are present in this peneplained land surface.

According to Somasiri (1991), the location and distribution of small tanks in the Anuradhapura district of the NCP had been determined, more by social factors and site features rather than by the hydrological properties of the catchment. It is not known at which period a major proliferation of the presently existing small tanks took place within the individual cascades. One fact that is however quite clear, is that not all these smaller or micro tanks, especially in the NCP were for purposes of irrigated paddy. Instead they served a number of other multiple uses including augmentation of the groundwater table in order to keep the domestic well water supply at a minimum level during the protracted dry seasons and as silt trapping tanks (Kulu wewa) during the rainy season.

There are no records or traditional knowledge available on the hydraulic design and storage capacity of the tanks. It is not known how the key hydrological parameters were determined, especially those relating to the amounts of rainfall, runoff and tank volumes. A body of empirical relationships would have been known at that period, which could have helped in determining the amount of storage that would have been possible within a water body created by an earthen bund of specific dimensions.

It must be remembered, that by the fourth and fifth centuries AD, very advanced hydraulic structures had been designed and constructed which would have required a sound knowledge of some of the key hydrological relationships pertaining to rainfall, runoff and storage volumes. There is no reason to doubt that this body of expert knowledge that was available for major reservoir and sluice-channel construction could have been extended with some modifications for the design and construction of the smaller tank systems as well.

Siriweera (1989) in his review of droughts and famines in the medieval period records that for that whole period between the sixth century AD and the reign of Parakramabahu (1276) there are no references to famines in the chronicles or in literature. It could, thereby, be indirectly inferred that a greater part of the small tank cascades of the Rajarata were in some operational form over this six hundred year period which enabled the settlers of the period to combat affects of drought which are common even today.

Causes for abandonment in the past

Abeysinghe (1982) states that there are several thousand abandoned tanks in the dry zone of this country which must be kept abandoned for one or more reasons that he enumerates as follows, they lack adequate catchment area, they lack suitable soils for agriculture, they lack approach roads, or they are located far away from human habitation or on the borders of nature reserves or wildlife sanctuaries.

In respect of the north central province it is observed that in much of the western segment of this province the abandoned tanks are located in either poorly hydrologically endowed meso-catchments, or in very rocky and gravelly rock-knob-plain landforms. The early settlers had probably no proper appreciation of either the hydrology or the land quality in this region. In contrast, in much of the eastern segment of this province it is observed that there is a sharper relief of the meso land form and that this has contributed to the instability of these tanks. In times of severely cyclonic depressions that occur during the period November-December, high intensity rainfall amounting to over 300 mm per day is experienced. During such storms, the surge of the overland runoff is very high on this type of landscape because of its sharp relief, and this results in a breach of the bunds of tanks unless they are very robustly constructed. This is also the view supported by the local residents of this region.

In contrast, in the central segment of this province there is almost a total absence of abandoned tanks especially in the upper aspects of the sub watersheds where the relief tends to be very subdued. Local residents also state that the small tank cascades located in the upper aspects of these sub-watersheds have been in continuous existence and use since the medieval period.

Adopting a heuristic approach, it could be demonstrated that there are different sets of reasons for the abandonment of small tanks in the different parts of the Rajarata. These have been discussed by Panabokke (1997).

The period of decline 13th to 19th century

Wanigaratne ( 1999) observes that the volume of accretionary capital in labour efforts and material invested in the small tank systems would have been colossal. This capital represented cumulative investment by successive generations of village families in several thousand villages using resources within their reach; and this in turn would have led to the evolution of appropriate institutional mechanisms that helped to maintain some order and stability in the management of these small tanks over hundreds of years.

However their disconnection from the larger irrigation systems that fell into decline from the 12th century onwards also led to a slow entropic decline in the small systems as well, but not to the same extent of a total collapse

While the management bureaucracies of the larger irrigation systems which were under the central government collapsed totally together with the state, the village level tank systems and their management mechanisms survived in varying degree.

Robert Knox (1681 ) gives a graphic description of ‘Every town (village) has one of these ponds (tanks) of which there is a great number, the banks of which are in length above a mile, some less - not all of a size ‘He does not mention sluices and spillways, but he states that they cut a gap in one end of the tank in order to draw water for irrigating the corn (rice).

In the course of field studies conducted in the Kende, Kunchutti, and Ulagalle Korales, I have come across several tank villages in the hydrologically stable and better endowed location which claim an unbroken record of occupation throughout the whole medieval period. Those areas of the Rajarata which have a low percentage of abandoned small tanks could be considered as those which had a better endowed and stable hydrology, which in turn enabled an unbroken continuity of occupation.

In effect, M. U. A. Tennakoon’s, ‘Wew-Bendi - Rajje’ refers to this area which he identifies as the more hydrologically stable areas of the Rajarata and which encomposses much of the ancient and present Kende Korales and the Rambewa - Ranpathvila areas.

The nineteenth century

One of the best accounts of the state of small village tank systems as they existed in the latter half of the nineteenth century can be found in Chapter eleven, Irrigation, pages 132-169 of R. W. Ievers Manual of the North Central Province (1890). Two statements by Ievers shows his profound understanding of the Rajarata environment. These are

1. ‘It may be broadly stated that without artificial irrigation and storage of water, human existence in the North Central Province would be impossible’.

2. ‘As the North Central Province, although apparently flat, is in reality undulating, the ancient tank builders took advantage of this conformation to make chairs of tanks in the valleys’.

It is stated that in 1855 the total number of tanks in Nuwarakalawiya was around 2,000. Of these 1,514 tanks were with few exceptions, regularly cultivated. In the year 1873, the Nuwarakalawiya register shows a total of 2,87? tanks with 1,500 of these abandoned or uninhabited.

It also states that between 1815 and 1874, no government assistance was given to the people to restore or repair their sluices or tanks, and they were left to their own devices. On the top of this the British administration abolished the ‘Rajakariya’ system in 1832 on grounds that it was some form of slavery. No alternative system was introduced for the repair and maintenance of tanks by the community, and many minor irrigation works fell into neglect and general decay.

According to I. K. Weerawardena (1986), scripts and pillar inscription of the 10th century prove the point that farmers had to adhere to certain laws laid down by the king or regional chieftains in relation to the repair, maintenance and management of small irrigation systems. The adherence to these laws over many generations resulted in the birth of customs and traditions, which gave the irrigation systems a discipline which continued up to British times. The ancient Rajakariya system was a compulsory personal labour obligation that helped to guarantee the maintenance of these small irrigation systemic over several centuries.

After forty years of neglect, Governor William Gregory in 1873 created the North Central Province for the expressed purpose of giving long-needed relief for restoration of village tanks. Mr. J. F. Dickson the Government Agent NCP at that time proceeded to give effect to the new policy of Governor Gregory, and by 1879 he had successfully effected ‘astonishing improvements; according to Ievers. Experiments were made during 1888 for producing a cheap and efficient village tank sluice. By 1890 a total of 958 village tank had been provided with durable cement pipe sluices. This sluicing of tanks alone resulted in a remarkable increase in paddy production in the Rajarata.

Bertram Bastianpillai (1967) deals very completely and analytically with this period of British rule from 1870 to 1890 in his ‘Revival of Irrigation Enterprises’ in the Journal of Historical and Social Studies.

By the turn of the century, almost all small village tanks had been supplied with a durable sluice which helped to conserve tank water supply, and also to do away with the wasteful practice that Knox had described of ‘cutting a gap in one end of the bank to draw water little-by-little for watering their corn’.

What was to follow in the subsequent century has been adequately documented by several writers over the last fifty years. Aheeyar (2000) describes in summary, the forms of minor tank irrigation institutions that existed during the Pre-colonial Era, the Colonial Era, and the Post Independence Period. It is pointed out that the country’s customary water laws had evolved over the years for collective operation, and because water was the scarce resource, there were more tenurial concerns towards water than land.

Conclusion

There is now an increasing awareness of the multiple functions and importance of the diverse benefits of the presently functioning small tank, or village irrigation systems. It is also now well recognized that since these small tanks constitute a very important part of the rural landscape and its eco-systems, there is a strong rationale for ensuring the sustainability of these village tank settlements for economic, social and environmental reasons.

I have given you only some selected aspects of the heritage of these small village tank systems. Being located in the very heartland of the Rajarata, your University has all the opportunities to explore and study the many aspects of these cascade systems which I have not been able to identify and address in the course of my own studies conducted in the recent years.

Medical feats of the ancient Sinhalese (WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka)

The Sinhalese medical tradition harkens back to well over 2000 years. Besides a number of medical discoveries that are only now being acknowledged by western medicine, the ancient Sinhalese are perhaps responsible for introducing the concept of hospitals to the world.

According to the Mahavansa, the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty written in the 6th century A.C. King Pandukabhaya (4th century B.C.) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country after having fortified his capital at Anuradhapura.

This is the earliest literary evidence we have of the concept of hospitals (i.e. a special centre where a number of patients could be collectively housed and treated until they recovered) anywhere in the world.

Prof. Arjuna Aluvihare ("Rohal Kramaya Lovata Dhayadha Kale Sri Lankikayo" Vidhusara Science Magazine, Nov. 1993) contends that there is no evidence, literary or otherwise, to show that hospitals were known elsewhere before and during the time of King Pandukabhaya.

According to Prof. Aluvihare, the oldest archaeological evidence we have so far of a hospital is in the ruins of Mihintale, where the remains of a hospital built in the ninth century could still be seen.

The layout of the building and the discovery of a medicinal trough and surgical instruments proves this beyond doubt.

Heinz E Muller-Dietz (Historia Hospitalium 1975) describes Mihintale Hospital as being perhaps the oldest in the world.

All medieval Sinhalese hospitals so far discovered appear to have comprised of a central courtyard surrounded by cells for the treatment of the sick and an adjoining second courtyard with surrounding rooms which were used for the storage and preparation of medicines, besides other purposes.

Ancient and medieval Sri Lanka it should be noted, had a corporate social organization where the state provided welfare services to the people in return for the corvee labour provided by masses to build irrigation works, palaces and religious edifices.

As such the state provided free medical care to all its citizens regardless of race, caste, sex, religion or status. Although traditional Sinhalese medicine has a number of distinctive features, it is primarily based on the science of Ayurveda (a Sanskrit term meaning "science of life") an essentially herbal system set forth in the medicinal texts (Sanhitas) of the great Indian physicians, Shushruta and Charaka who lived about the same time as the "Father of modern medicine" Hippocrates the Greek.

Ancient Sri Lanka"s extremely cordial relations with Mauryan India would have considerably helped facilitate the dissemination of the great Indian medicinal tradition amongst the local population.

King Asoka"s (3rd century B.C.) Girnar rock edict states that he provided medicines and medical aid for both men and animals as far as Tambaparni (The old Indian name for Sri Lanka).

However, in spite of the profound Indian influence, Sinhalese medical knowledge has developed on is own course with the passage of time and we note a number of distinctive features, which mark it out from other medical systems.

We come across a number of references to medicines and medical treatment in the ancient Sinhalese chronicles. According to the Mahavansa, prior to the birth of her son Dutugemunu, Queen Viharamahadevi gifted medicines to the Buddhist clergy in order that she may conceive.

The same work alludes to King Dutugemunu having donated food and medicine to the sick.

King Buddhadasa (340-368 A.C.) the country"s renowned physician- king was adept in general medicine, surgery, midwifery and veterinary medicine.

The king"s surgical operation on an outcaste (Chandala) woman in order to deliver her child and the surgical removal of a lump in the belly of a snake are some of the feats narrated of this remarkable monarch in the sequel to the Mahavansa, Chulavansa. The chronicle states that the king constantly carried a set of surgical instruments with him on his journeys. It speaks well for the nobility of this king who casting aside ancient prejudices " unimaginable in those caste-ridden days " to have attended on an untouchable female.

This in itself shows that the Sinhalese medical establishment of yore considered service to humanity to be such a sacred and estimable duty as to even transcend caste barriers, which were otherwise strictly observed at the time.

The king"s surgical feats on a helpless serpent also shows that not only humans, but also other creatures benefited from the medical skills acquired by the ancients.

The king is also stated to have given medical professionals due remuneration for their services to the people. The Chulavansa states that the king "gave the physicians the produce of ten fields as livelihood."

The compilation of the "Sarartha Sangraha", a comprehensive medical treatise in Sanskrit is also attributed to King Buddhadasa. Although this work is similar in arrangement to the Sanhita of Shushruta, it contains much original information as well.

The work deals with the preparation of drugs, clinical diagnosis, surgical instruments and operations, ear, nose and throat diseases, eye diseases, tuberculosis, insanity, epilepsy and obstetrics, besides a number of other subjects of medical importance.

King Aggabodhi VII (766-772 A.C.) even went to the extent of undertaking fresh research pertaining to medicinal substances. According to the Chulavansa, the king "studied the medicinal plants over the entire island of Lanka to ascertain whether they were wholesome or harmful to the sick."

King Mahinda IV (956-972 A.C.) is said to have distributed beds and medicines to all the hospitals of his realm.

King Parakrama-Bahu I (1153-1186 A.C.) who was also well versed in medicine helped qualified physicians practise their skills by providing them with due maintenance.

It is thought here necessary to give a more detailed explanation of the Sinhalese Hospital tradition to provide an idea of the extent to which the Sinhalese had advanced in hospital care. The ninth century Mihintale hospital which has the distinction of being the oldest hospital yet discovered in any part of the world as seen earlier, was quite a complex structure.

The hospital is believed to have been founded by King Sena II (851-885 A.C.) on the basis of evidence in the Chulavansa.

As shown by recent archaeological excavations the hospital complex comprised of an outer and inner court.

The rooms used for the preparation and storage of medicines and the hot water bath were situated in the outer court. The discovery of stone querns used in the grinding of herbs in the outer court area suggests that the preparation of medicines took place thereabouts.

The inner court in common with later hospitals, was surrounded by a number of cells where the patients appear to have been treated.

A slab inscription of Mahinda IV (956-972 A.C.) near the hospital alludes to physicians; physicians who apply leeches and dispensers of medicine. Other hospitals of the medieval period which have been excavated are the Medirigiriya and Polonnaruwa hospitals.

Excavations at Mediri-giriya, where a hospital is believed to have flourished in the ninth century, have revealed a stone medicine trough and querns for grinding medicine.

Excavations at the Polonnaruwa hospital site have revealed medicine grinders, a pair of scissors, ceramic jars for the storage of medicines and a hooked copper instrument which was probably used for incising abscesses.

The construction of the hospital is assigned to King Parakramabahu I (12th century).

Literary and epigraphic evidence however indicates there were many more hospitals and other institutions for the handicapped in existence in ancient and medieval Sri Lanka.

According to the Chulavansa, the kings Buddhadasa and Upatissa II built institutions for cripples and hospitals for the blind.

Upatissa II was probably also responsible for building the country"s first ever maternity home, while Kasyapa IV had specialized hospitals built in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa to combat Upasagga, which is believed to have been an epidemic disease.

An inscription attributed to King Kasyapa V (914-923 A.C.) records the establishment of "medical halls" in Anuradhapura.

As borne out by the Kiribathvehera pillar inscription attributed to King Kasyapa IV (896-913 A.C.), the dispensary was such a hallowed institution that it had the privilege of affording sanctuary to offenders.

As Dr.C.G.Uragoda (A History of Medicine in Sri Lanka,1987) notes: "This is indeed a privilege of a high order if one considers other institutions which have enjoyed similar time honoured positions, namely churches in medieval Europe and embassies." As for the efficacy of local medicine this is borne out by a number of western authorities right down from the Portuguese colonial period (16th-17th centuries).

Joao Ribeiro, the famous Portuguese soldier-historian who served in Sri Lanka from 1641-1658 has written in his reputed work "Fatalidade Historia de Ceilao".

"They are great herbalists, and in case of wounds, tumours, broken arms and legs they effect a cure in a few days with great ease. As for cancer, which is a loathsome and incurable disease among us, they can cure it in eight days, removing all viscosity from the scab without so much as leaving a mark anywhere to show that the disease had been there. I have seen a large number of soldiers and captains cured during my residence in the country, and the ease with which this was done was marvellous.

In truth the land is full of medicinal herbs and many antidotes to poison, which I have myself tried to learn as a remedy against snake-bites."

Dr C.G. Uragoda ("A scientific basis for some traditional beliefs and practices in Sri Lanka". JRAS SL. 1989/1990) has shown that a good deal of traditional Sinhalese medical concepts, practices and drugs have a sound scientific basis.

The concept of heaty (giniyam) and cooling (sitala) foods is one such example. Dr Uragoda has shown that a variety of fish such as skipjack (Sinh. Balaya) and tuna (Sinh. Kelavalla) which are traditionally regarded as heaty, have a high histamine content, a substance which causes allergic reactions amongst some people.

He has also shown that olden day Sinhalese folk knew that the malaria parasite was transmitted by the mosquito long before 1884. When Sir Patrick Manson propounded the theory that the malaria parasite was transmitted through mosquitoes.

As evidence he has cited an interesting passage in Sir Emerson Tennent"s Ceylon (1859) which alludes to the Sinhalese of the time employing mosquito curtains as a precaution against malaria.

This would indicate that the Sinhalese knew that the mosquito was the vector of malaria at least 25 years before Manson advanced his famous Mosquito-Malaria theory.

Smoking of adhatoda vasica as treatment for excessive phlegm and use of coscinium fenestratum (Sinh. Venivel) as a prophylactic against tetanus are some of the traditional remedies cited by Dr Uragoda which have a sound scientific basic.

The Buried Kingdom of Kotte (WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka)

Past the junction of Rajagiriya, now the gate-way to the administrative hub of our island, namely the Sri Jayawardene Parliament Complex, one enters a strange terrain. Externally no evidence of any extraordinary or spectacular aspect is visible since the suburban aspects of Colombo s fringe territory marked by the thick asphalt and concrete jungle continues here too with a regular monotony. But what makes the terrain special is that underneath all these modern concrete structures and the network of roads on which a seething populace walk and ribbons of vehicles ply back and forth in mad frenzy, sleeps a mighty city.

It was the capital of our island from 1415-1565 AD predominated by the long reign of Parakrama Bahu VI, the last Sinhala king who ruled a unified Lanka. The attacks on the kingdom both by external aggressors as the Portuguese and internal dissidents were so ferocious that only meagre visible remnants testify to the existence of a once magnificent city. Just past the junction of Rajagiriya or Welikada (the more authentic name) along the Battaramulla road, one comes to the bridge under which flows a rivulet of the famous Diyawanna Oya (river) that snaked around the city. It was in the proximity of this bridge that the resplendent gateway to the old city had stood. It had been a stone-hewn gigantic entrance and no trace of it now remains. The city had been circumscribed by a mighty rampart and moat built by Nissanka Alagakkonara, a minister. Very few traces of this moat and rampart are now visible here and there as seen in the boundaries of the Perakumba Pirivena. According to existing ruins it is concluded that the rampart had been 8 feet high and 30 feet wide. The Dalada Perahara is said to have paraded along the rampart replete with elephants and flambeau-carrying dancers not to mention the king himself riding behind the richly caparisoned elephant carrying the sacred relic casket followed by thousands of devotees.

There is a road in modern Kotte city named Rampart Road , the only tribute to this mighty rampart built to ward off attacks. Along parts of the moat, encroachers have put up shacks and coconut trees flourish here and there. That is the sad fate of a very historical structure put up as late as the 15th century. Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is the least preserved of our ancient capitals. Even our first capital of Anuradhapura going back to pre-Christian times exhibits a better state of preservation and the explanation given usually for this state of affairs is that Kotte s proximity to the capital spelt its final doom. As the population began to burst within Colombo s seams, the deep moat began to provide a refuge to the homeless and also a dumping ground of garbage while the more resourceful citizens very unpatriotically built their concrete dwellings over the remnants of the ancient buildings. The lethargy of those in power added to the tragic situation. Anyway this modern house building came as an aftermath of the pillage of the city of Kotte by the Portuguese and by King Rajasinghe 1 of Sitawaka. Rajasinghe attacked the city to drive away the Portuguese while the Portuguese themselves destroyed it before moving onto the fort of Colombo with King Dharmapala. All in all the resplendent capital of Kotte plummeted into the most chaotic melee.

The Royal Palace eulogized in the Sandeshas (message poetry of Kotte) as the most magnificent edifice, a five-storied building constructed out of luminous blue stone, in whose exotic courts kings of old received embassies, had been transformed into a heap of rubble and the Dutch are said to have carried away the bricks and other materials to build their churches in Colombo. Later the rubble and the bricks had been carried away during the British government to build the brakewater at Galle Face. Contractors assigned with the removal of these had carried away the more worthy artifacts as the moonstones to decorate their own homes. That is how a moonstone (sandakada pahana) of the Royal Palace adorns a house at Veyangoda now. The cruel fate that befell the Royal Palace, befell the Dalada Maligawa (Temple of the Tooth Relic) said to be a three-storied edifice crowned by a chaitya with a golden pinnacle.

Today a Maligawa Road (Palace Road) runs along in Kotte by an area surmised to be where the Palace was. The Royal Pond of the Palace had been intact till about the 30s according to some sources but somebody now has built a house above it too. The Portuguese had destroyed the Dalada Maligawa and built a church in the precincts and the church too has now disappeared leaving behind only the karakoppuwa or the cemetery. The Alakeswara Road leads to the ruins of the Palace where Minister Alagakkonara who built the Kotte fortress lived and within its proximity are two large Tombs (according to some, chaityas) known as the Baddegana Tombs. They had been buried inside a mini-mountain for years and years, foliage having grown above it till it is reported in a folk legend that one moonlit night a devotee in sil clothes walking by it had heard the sound of hewisi (drums) emanating from it. Later excavations had revealed the twin tombs or chaityas. And here is an unbelievable and almost repugnant piece. A part of the Chitra Kuta Mandapaya where the Kotte kings had their consecration ceremonies now lies miserably in ignoble negligence and a gaping hole in it is said to be used as a lavatory pit! When the writer last visited it, parts of vehicles from a nearby garage were dumped on it and beggars and stray dogs were surveying these and other heaps of rubbish on it for possible marketable and edible stuff!

Place names in Kotte reveal many edifices as the name Angampitiya. This had been the sports venue of the capital, where many games of skill (angam) were played. Today it is just a humdrum site of human dwellers. In the site where Vibhishana Devale stood, where many a bird messenger paid homage in their aerial flights had been put up a house, however, now it stands as the Archaeological Museum. The museum just now seems to be more in a dormant stage than in an active stage. The Ranga Hala (dancing hall) and Saraswathi Mandapaya, where the learned and the high-born gathered for discourses had been sited beyond this, but there are no visible extents of any of these.

More words need not be wasted on the misfortune that befell the mighty city of Kotte. Most of it lies buried under modern concrete, a part of it has been taken away to put up other buildings while human ablutions are performed on the very consecration stone of the kings, now become a resting place of the area s stray dogs. One can take solace only in Buddha s teachings of impermanence of all things to reconcile one s mind with this state of things. But there is nothing to prevent one becoming nostalgic over the old city described by one of Kotte s greatest poets, Sri Rahula Himi in Selalihini Sandesha in the following strain.

See, friend, proud city Jayawardene Whose name renowned by victories achieved Was won, which far in luxury outlives The devas city and whose mighty host With faith and love adores the Triple Gem The basin there, like Diyawanna called Aye represent the fair silk robe, that wraps The Lady city and its heavy folds Of waves with its long shaking girdle cloth Of splashing foam with rows of lilies red In wrought and golden likeness of the swan. The city s wall with strong broad gates and bars The jewelled breast-band represent, assumed By the fair proud dame Lanka in her youth. Her crest Samantha and the sea her zone.

(This is a translation of the original verse done by Paul Peiris and included in his book Ceylon: the Portuguese Era)

Source: Explore Sri Lanka

Ancient ports of call in Sri Lanka - by Rohan Jayetilleke (WWW Virtual Library - Sri Lanka)

Sri Lanka being situated in the middle of the Indian Ocean and to the extreme south of the Indian Peninsula, Sri Lanka was the only favourite port of call for revictualling and water for the mariners sea-borne from West to east and Vice-versa. The fleets of Chinese junks carrying silk and ceramic ware to trading stations on the East African coast, and the Arabian Vessels transporting spices of the East Indies to European markets had to call at the ports of Sri Lanka necessarily as a half way port in the long and arduous sea travel in sailing vessels.

Although the foreign traders who lay anchor at these Sri Lanka ports hardly recorded these ports, there is a wealth of references in Pali chronicles and Sinhala literature and additionally inscriptions enable us to piece together the international recognition of these ports during these early times.

Jambukola and Mahatittha are two ports mentioned frequently in the Mahavamsa, in its resume of the history of the island. However it is not possible to be certain as to when these ports became operational but, it could be assumed without fear of contradiction that these ports were in existence even during the time of aryan colonization of the island, which points to the fact Aryans were only one race of people to arrive in Sri Lanka and they were never the founding fathers of Sri Lanka, as Sri Lankan's history is datable beyond the Aryan immigrants., from India. Thus Sri Lankans are not totally of Indian descendants and Aryan immigrants only provided a cross-cultural impact on Sri Lanka, which already had an advanced civilization.

The Jataka stories which are pre-Buddhistic and later the figure of the Buddha was introduced to them to make them Buddhistic, contain a number of references of voyages by North Indian merchants to Sri Lanka. The account in the Valahass Jataka refer to one of the ports situated on the North Western coast of Sri Lanka.

Port of Jambukola

Jambukola, identified as the present day Kankesanturai, served as the port to North India, more especially to the port of Tamralpiti in Bengal, which was also a port from where Sri Lanka could be reached. It was from Jambukola that the envoys of King Devanampiyatissa set sail the Court of Emperor Asoka of India. (Mahavamsa ch. 19. v23). Jambukola and Anuradhapura were connected by a highway and King Devanampiyatissa had the road prepared ( I bid ch 19 v 25) After the reign of King Devanampiyatissa, Jambukola diminished in importance and Mannar (Mahatitthe) which was only distance-wise to Anuradhapura, was half of it came into prominence. However, references are made in Mahavamsa to Jambukola as the port for religious intercourse from time to time. The Sacred sapling of Sri Maha Bodhia of Gaya (India) arrived in the charge of Theri Sanghamitta through Jambukola, and King Devanampiyatissa marked this event by building the Jambukola Vihara on the banks of this port (Ed.W.Stede; Sumangalavilasini. Part 1., PTS. Edition p.695).

Port of Mahatittha

Mahatittha port, in present day Mannar area, is first mentioned in connection with the landing of Vijaya's second wife and undoubtedly this port was known to mariners and merchants of India even in the pre-Aryan era. The existence of the Hindu shrine Tiruketisvaram, is a clear indication that Indian Hindus did carry on trade connections with Sri Lanka through this port and the existence of pearl fisheries too contributed it to become a port of great commercial activity both for the natives and the foreigners.

Today Mahatittha is a buried city. In the pre 1980 period when travel to Mannar or for public servants from the south to work in the government establishments there were a possibility, the site of the port was a vast mound of piled up ruins, spread over nearly 300 acres and coins and beads laid bear after a shower. One of its main roads excavated many decades ago was almost 40 feet wide. (Archaeological Survey of Ceylon Annual Report, 1907, p 28. It is a pit during the colonial era excavations were done and these surveys have not been continued in the post independence period of Sri Lanka and any recommencement of surveys and excavations are now thwarted by the war situation of the area.

The fragments of Roman pottery, coins and other artifacts suggest conclusively that Mahatittha was a great port in the early centuries of the Christian era. In the Sangam Literature of the Tamils there are refereneses to this port as one of the greatest of the sea board of Sri Lanka and India. (C. Rasanayagam, Ancient Jaffna, p.14ff) It was through Mahatittha that all South Indian invaders invaded Sri Lanka, and the large community of Tamil traders in business at Mahatittha helped them in their military pursuits.

Mahatittha was not confined for intercourse with South India alone. There are authentic records of voyages from North India too. The Sacred Tooth Relic that was brought by the Kalinga Prince Danta and princess Hemamali to Sri Lanka in the fourth century AD, it was landed at this port. The Pali work Dathavamsa fails to call this port as Mahatittha, but refers it to as Lankapattana (Dhatavamsa, Edited by Widurajothi Thero, Kalutara 1939,0.37). Interestingly the 12th century work Daladavamsa describes this port in most disparaging languages, probably of the fact it was a stronghold of the Tamil invaders and the gateway to Sri Lanka for overrunning Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa kingdoms and also the presence of the Hindu temple therein.

The origin of Tiruketisvaram temple is shrouded in the mists of history, there was still another Hindu temple Rararaja Isarattu Mahadeva named after the Chola conqueror of Sri Lanka of the 11th century AD. (Annual Report on the Epigraphy, South India, No. 616 of 1912) The predominance of Hindu culture, which could be traced to the reign of King Pandukhabaya. The name of Mahatittha was later changed by the Hindu community living there as Rajs-raja-puram (Annual Report on Epigraphy, South India No. 616 of 1912). This is not an uncommon happening as there is a place outside of Melbourne, Australia, called in Sinhala 'Mayiyokka Handiya' (Maniock Junction, renamed by some of the early Sinhala settlers who went as indentured labour, 500 in number to work in sugar cane fields of then Australia, from the port of Galle in 1882.

A Chola inscription refers to still another temple called Tiruviramisvaram Udaiyar at this port. (Ibid., No.618) Mahatittha was held in veneration both by the Sinhalese and Tamils and slaughter of cattle there was disallowed as a unpardonable crime. (E.Z.Vol III, p.133) the reference in the Saddharmalankaraya of a trader of this port proceeding inland for trading, indicates that there was free and fair access to all communities to this port as well as for other parts of the island on trade and commerce missions. (Ed. Gnanavimala: Saddhammalankaraya, Colombo, 1948. p.675).

King Parakramabahu in the 12th century assembled an armada of battle ships at Mahatittha to invade Pandya Kingdom.

A journey through cave temples (www.sundaytimes.lk/040509)

Take the Moneragala-Siyambalanduwa highway. Turn off at Kodayana and go up to Kotiyagala. Walk along a jungle track for six miles and you reach two large caves on the slope of a mountain called Myella kanda.

This huge cave shrine has a recumbent Buddha image made of brick and clay. Its head, chest and lower section have been damaged by treasure hunters, but the parts that are intact indicate that it is a pure white statue with flowing robes. It is typical of the Anuradhapura period statues.

The ceiling of this cave is completely covered with a series of paintings centring on the recumbent Buddha statue. Among the paintings are exquisite designs, some very uncommon compared with early paintings like Sigiriya. Then there are the female figures similar to the Apsaras at Sigiriya and Vessagriya.

Looking for material for a publication on Sinhala Buddhist art, renowned photographer Gamini Jayasinghe and a keen student of archaeology Dharmasena Rassapana accompanied by well-known artist Kusana Manjusri did the trek to the Myella caves and found the place fascinating. They also found a cave with visuals of prehistoric or Veddah rock art. "One was a sketch of a figure riding an elephant. It looked like a primitive form of art done with the finger immersed in clay or ash in white," author Rassapana explained.

Elephants figure prominently in these cave paintings. "We noticed four distinct features in them. One elephant is engaged in water sports, another is carrying a lotus in its trunk. A third gives the impression it is ready to run. Lastly the frontal view of a moving elephant is shown. In the middle of an intricate ceiling design, there is also an elephant within a circle with its tail bent."

Myella is just one among many cave temples featured in the first of three planned books, released as a Sarvodaya Vishva Lekha publication titled 'The Grandeur of Sinhala Buddhist Art - Classical Period'. It covers the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods.

Formerly a senior administrative officer in the public service, Rassapana read archaeology for his degree at Peradeniya. Prof. Senerat Paranavitana was his lecturer. After retirement, he was keen to locate places his professor had spoken of and began his search with photographer Gamini Jayasinghe.

"We noticed a similarity in the places we visited, be it well known sites or lesser known ones. Habessa, Myella, Vessagiriya have all belonged to the same school of art and have common features," Rassapana says.

The Habessa cave temple in the Monaragala district also has a cave with a recumbent image with paintings on the ceiling.

At Situlpauwa (earlier known as Chittalapabbata) near the Yala sanctuary, hundreds of caves in the jungle have been found. One of them, Korawakgala contains a drawing of red lines on thick plaster of a line of swans carrying lotus flowers in their mouths. Most of the paintings in these caves are damaged.

Another cave temple with the Sigiriya touch is Gonagolla in the Gal Oya valley. A female figure has been identified by Paranavitana as a dancer performing the Parjanya pooja in front of God Parjanya calling for rain. Dressed in a jacket with sleeves, this has been described as one of the most graceful and sensual figures among the ancient paintings.

A group of divine beings paying homage to the Buddha carrying flowers and seated on lotuses is seen in the Pulligoda cave temple in Dimbulagala.

Better known places like Sigiriya, Gal Vihara and Tiwamka image house have also been extensively discussed in the book, with the photographs presenting a number of sights hitherto not seen. Among the Tiwamka paintings, the Buddha descending to the city of Sankissa from Tusita heaven after preaching to the gods, for example, has been captured in a close-up with details of the image. Another interesting picture is the one showing a different head dress (somewhat similar to a modern day helmet) worn by a divine figure. In fact, head dresses and ornaments in these paintings are varied.

The writer draws attention to remains of paintings seen in the Gal Vihara cave with the seated Buddha. In one strip is an old man with a drooping moustache and a flowing white beard holding a flower with a long stalk in his fingers and the thumb of his right hand, while in the open palm of his left hand is a conch shell. A single string necklace and a brahmanical cord are worn round his bare body. Divine figures paying homage to the Buddha are also seen.

The author concludes that painters belonging to the classical period (up to 13th century A.D) had worked with religious devotion and creativity. They were absorbed in the creations that presented many aspects of humanitarian ideals. He believes that up to now, other artists have not been able to achieve these heights of excellence.

Readers will naturally be tempted to visit the places described in the book. What a lot more there is to see in our own country, was my reaction.
-D. C. Ranatunga

Unfinished business at Tantrimale By D.C. Ranatunga (Wijeya Newspapers Ltd. will hold an Aloka Pooja at the historic Tantrimale temple from June 1-3)

A sedentary Buddha, colossal in stature, carved in the rock, the panels on either side of it prepared centuries ago but yet uncut centuries later: a reclining Buddha of giant proportions, the finishing touches yet to be made: a stock of wedged pillars and coping stones, beaded edges cut with great care, all lying in the forest where they were quarried; a stupa crumbling with age on the crest of the highest wave of stone, and leading to a flight of steps that begins but does not end; a stone cubicle atop another pinnacle, a sentinel watching over the panorama; ruins everywhere, caves and inscriptions here and there. This is Tantrimale.

This is Tantrimale, where carvings that rival those of the Galvihare await the sculptor's finishing touches; where eight of a flight of steps are cut while a ninth remains half cut; where pillars and stones, carved and uncarved, lie where they were quarried, awaiting buildings to be erected.

This is Tantrimale, as it was on that day when the word came that an army from the coast was on the march, the day when the people fled leaving their task unfinished.

So Subbiah Muthiah wrote 45 years ago in the Times Annual 1959. Few went to Tantrimale then. It's a different story today. The motorable road from Anuradhapura has made it a popular place of worship. Pilgrims do the 35-mile drive and enjoy yet another marvel of the days of the Sinhalese monarchs.

The magnificent gal talawa is a treat. The walk around the caves and places of worship is not tiring. The climb is easy. Many are the places to see. Walking to the right and reaching the top of the rock, one meets the Bodhi, one of the first eight offshoots (ashta palaruha bodhi) of the original Bo-sapling brought during the time of King Devanampiyatissa.

The Mahavamsa mentions that when the Bo-sapling was brought by Theri Sanghamitta, "the village of the Brahman Tivakka" was one of the places where the party rested on their way to Anuradhapura. As a token of remembrance, an offshoot was presented. Tantrimale was then known as Tiwakka Bamunu Gama.

Looking down one sees the rock cut image of the sedentary Buddha, almost eight feet high. Behind the image is a makara thorana. One sees a pond in the distance. According to a resident monk, it never runs dry. Closer to the pond are several caves including one used as the poth gula (library). Inscriptions with Brahmi letters have been found in the caves.

A museum houses the artifacts found on the premises. Coming round to the left, one approaches the rock cut reclining Buddha, 40 feet in length. Opposite the statue, on top of the rock is the dagoba. Walking to the left of the dagoba, one reaches the newly-built budu-ge where final touches are being given to the paintings. An evening stroll round the Tantrimale complex is a pleasant and satisfying experience.